by Irene Chiang
[Abstract]
Research paper comparing or contrasting two dance movement therapy pioneers’ approaches. In this research paper, two pioneers are being discussed for comparison: Mary Whitehouse and Alma Hawkins.
Foreword
Mary Whitehouse and Alma Hawkins, both originally modern dancers and major dance movement therapy pioneers who worked and taught on the west coast of the United States, had similar beliefs and approaches toward dance therapy, and deeply influenced by theories of major psychologists as well. In fact, Whitehouse and Hawkins were close friends, and both of them “valued authentic movement but defined it differently” (Bridges, 2004, p.1). The aim of this research paper is to compare the theories / approaches and methodologies of these two dance therapy pioneers.
Theory / Approach
* Mary Whitehouse
Mary Whitehouse was most influenced by her work with Mary Wigman and C. G. Jung. As a dance therapist and Jungian analyst, she was the first pioneer to “link a thorough understanding or dance and movement to the principles of depth psychology” (Chodorow, 1991, p. 24). In Jungian psychology, active imagination is one of the many analytic techniques utilized by Whitehouse and her disciples for bringing the unconscious into the conscious to advance a healthy and balanced personality.
Through her practice, Whitehouse made dance a distinct mode of Jungian depth psychology In the 1960s. For her, the primary goal of dance therapy is to make a person’s inner images and emotions come out through outer movement in order for that person to recognize and understand them better. In additions, this movement should occur in the presence of the therapist to witness and to help process the experience by verbal means (Engler, 2004, online resource).
Whitehouse also emphasized kinesthetic awareness and polarity. The former is our internal sense and awareness of our physical self and how it feels to move in a certain way. If kinesthetic awareness is not developed or utilized, it becomes unconscious. The latter means opposing movements, such as open and closed, narrow and wind, or heavy and light. It is natural for us to move in this way, and if we always choose one polarity on the continuum, then unconsciously we are pulled toward a balance (Levy, 1988, p. 64-65). She also considered that people are from two extremes.
Authentic movement, or “movement in depth,” was created by Whitehouse. It is not about performance, but it invites inward attention, allowing the unconscious to find its own expression through physical movement. In other words, “it invites the embodiment of consciousness as one (the mover) is seen in the presence of another (the witness)” (Castle, 1996, p. 1). In an interview with Gilda Frantz, Whitehouse said: “body movement is active imagination in sensory or sensation terms (Pallaro, 1999, p. 20), and when talking about authentic movement, she stated: “an authentic movement is in and of the Self at the moment it is done. Nothing is in it that is not inevitable, simple” (Pallaro, 1999, p. 23).
* Alma Hawkins
For Alma Hawkins, the primary influences were Carl Rogers’ humanistic psychology which focused on client-centered approach and group dynamics, and Harold Rugg’s beliefs in the nature of creativity, the fundamental role of movement in the arts and its being an integral part of the thought process (Levy, 1988, p. 91). In Hawkins’ view, the creative process involves: (a) Seeing: “having a clear image, attending to qualities, and then letting the inner-sensing provide the impulse for the externalized movement: ‘Let the movement happen’” (Hawkins, 1991, p. 24). (b) Feeling: from inward sensing / listening comes an awareness and impulse of for outward expression of such internal feeling (Hawkins, 1991, p. 31). (c) Imaging: images and imagination are crucial in making dances, and the though process of creation depends on a free-flow imagery (Hawkins, 1991, p. 57). Moreover, she considered forming (external symbolic expression of inner reality) and transforming (imagery to have changes and developments, and to be embodied) have a huge impact on creative process (Bridges, 2004, p. 1). In the end, healing will occur.
Other major influences for Hawkins were Edmund Jacobson’s progressive relaxation, which she considered a highly significant factor affecting perception, and she also incorporated Jacobson’s research regarding residual tension (Levy, 1988, p. 92). This is actually similar to the Whitehousian “stillness,” which means the openness for perception. She believed that such relaxation helps form body image, increase human perception and awareness of inner feelings, and create a new connection with experiences we had before. She considered that when relaxing, movement would become full of meaning and insight (Bridges, 2004, p. 1).
As Mary Whitehouse, Alma Hawkins gave high regards toward authentic movement, yet her definition on authenticity in movement is not totally the same as that of Whitehouse. For Hawkins, authenticity in movement occurs when outward actions match inner feelings. It involves the right side (the imaginary and creative side) of the brain, intuition, and makes an inner way of knowing possible (Levy, 1988, p. 93). It is seen by a change in the movement quality and shift in energy flow. During the therapy process, the originally short moments of authenticity will be extended in duration (Bridges, 2004, p. 2).
Methodology
* Mary Whitehouse
Mary Whitehouse worked mostly with “well-functioning normal neurotics” (Chodorow, 1991, p. 24), and used her own intuition to assist clients to trust theirs (Levy, 1988, p. 68). She would begin with Graham-style warm-up with simple tasks to increase self-confidence and kinesthetic awareness for the client. She did not lead and join a group during the therapy session, but sat aside observing and guiding the client to the awareness of emotions through concrete physical movement, and she rarely spoke (used music sometimes) during the improvisation process. It was during the pauses when she integrated verbal communication with movement (Levy, 1988, p. 69-71).
When her clients showed the ability to move freely, Whitehouse offered an unstructured environment. However, if they could not achieve this by themselves, she would use movement themes and creative structure to facilitate their thoughts and emotions through movement. This is referred to as “projective technique.” Also, she used descriptions of common objects or movement themes to create shapes for those who needed a space for their feelings (Levy, 1988, p. 70).
* Alma Hawkins
Alma Hawkins’ clientele included common people and psychiatric patients. She often began a session with guided movement experience, and then turned to relaxation and attending to breathing. Afterwards, participants were involved in movement tasks motivated by imagery (Levy, 1988, p. 94). She believed that energy flow, time and space, originally concepts from Rudolf Laban, are three movement components. As Whitehouse, she recognized opposites or polarities in movement, and explored the graduations along continuum of such movement qualities (Bridges, 2004, p. 2). She also used concrete or abstract images to increasing the awareness of the body-mind connection, and considered that “the abstract image provides a freedom that allows students to draw attention on feelings associated with personal experiences (Hawkins, 1911, p. 36).
As Whitehouse, Hawkins used verbal or non-verbal ways to support, not direct, any experience the individual was having in the session without judgment. She did not tell what she saw in the client’s movement, and did not interpret their movement response, either, because she believed that the growth would happen in time with the client setting the pace for his or her own insights (Levy, 1988, p. 94). She also stated that “a special kind of empathy must be established which sets the stage for a deepening of the ‘working’ relationship” (Leventhal, 1984, p. 10) between the therapist and the client.
Conclusion
Mary Whitehouse and Alma Hawkins were both modern dancers originally. When they shifted their focus toward dance movement therapy, they started their practice with both psychiatry patients and common people. As their career progressed, the majority of their clients became normal, highly functioning people. However, during the course of their individual career, they gradually worked toward different directions.
Mary Whitehouse was interested in “a process that furthers personal growth” (Pallaro, 1999, p. 24) rather than teaching dance, and she totally abandoned dance performing later in her career, due to a shift of interests and “a long struggle with multiple sclerosis” (Levy, 1988, p. 62). On the contrary, Alma Hawkins stayed in the dance world more than any dance therapy pioneers. She founded the first separate dance department within a university in the United States, and continued her career on dance education teaching choreography and performing in addition to her dance therapy practice. Both were so close yet different; what they contributed to the world of dance movement therapy were equally tremendous.
[References]
Bridges, Laurel (2004). Alma Hawkins. Class notes.
Castle, Jeanne (1996). Some notes on authentic movement. Unpublished manuscript.
Chodorow, J. (1991). Mary Starks Whitehouse in Dance therapy & depth psychology: The moving imagination (pp. 24-29). London: Routledge.
Hawkins, A.M. (1991). Moving from within: A new method for dance making. Chicago: Capella Book.
Leventhal, M. (1984). An interview with Alma Hawkins. American Journal of Dance Therapy, 7, 5-14.
Levy, Fran J. (1988). Mary Whitehouse (pp. 61-74) and Alma Hawkins (pp. 91-95) in Dance movement therapy: A healing art. Reston, Virginia: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance.
Pallaro, P. (1999). Authentic movement: Essays by Mary Starks Whitehouse, Janet Adler & Joan Chodorow. London: Jessica Kingsley.
[Online Resources]
Engler, Barbara (2004). Active Imagination in Houghton Mifflin. Available: http://college.hmco.com/psychology/engler/personality_theories/6e/students/active_imagination.html
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